Japan
Japan (Japanese: 日本 Nippon or Nihon; formally 日本国 Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku, "State of Japan") is an island nationin East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, the East China Sea, China, North Korea, South Korea, Taiwan and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. Thekanji that make up Japan's name mean "sun origin", and Japan is often called the "Land of the Rising Sun". Japan is a stratovolcanic archipelago of 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku, which make up about ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan's population of 126 million is the world's tenth largest. Approximately 9.1 million people live in Tokyo,10 the capital city of Japan, which is the second largest city proper in the OECD. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the world's largest metropolitan area with over 35 million residents and the world's largest urban agglomeration economy. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly Imperial China, followed by periods of isolation, later from Western European influence, has characterized Japan's history. From the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into |- | colspan="3" | |- | colspan="3" |'Government Seal of Japan' * * Go-Shichi no Kiri (五七桐?) |- | colspan="3" | |- | colspan="2" |'Capital' and largest city |Tokyo 35°41′N 139°46′E |- ! colspan="2" |Official languages |None1 |- | colspan="2" |Recognised regional languages | * Aynu itak * Ryukyuan languages * Eastern Japanese * Western Japanese * several other Japanese dialects |- ! colspan="2" |National language |Japanese |- | colspan="2" |'Ethnic groups'(20112) | * 98.5% Japanese * 0.5% Korean * 0.4% Chinese * 0.6% other |- ! colspan="2" |Demonym |Japanese |- ! colspan="2" |Government |Unitary parliamentaryconstitutional monarchy |- | - |Emperor |Akihito |- | - |Prime Minister |Shinzō Abe |- | - |Deputy Prime Minister |Tarō Asō |- ! colspan="2" |Legislature |National Diet |- | - |Upper house |House of Councillors |- | - |Lower house |House of Representatives |- ! colspan="3" |Formation |- | - |National Foundation Day |11 February 660 BC3 |- | - |Meiji Constitution |November 29, 1890 |- | - |Current constitution |May 3, 1947 |- | - |San Francisco Peace Treaty |April 28, 1952 |- ! colspan="3" |Area |- | - |Total |377,944 km24 (62nd) 145,925 sq mi |- | - |Water (%) |0.8 |- ! colspan="3" |Population |- | - |2015 estimate |126,880,0005 (10th) |- | - |2010 census |128,056,0266 |- | - |Density |337.1/km2 (36th) 873.1/sq mi |- | colspan="2" |'GDP' (PPP) |2015 estimate |- | - |Total |$4.843 trillion7 (4th) |- | - |Per capita |$38,2167 (29th) |- | colspan="2" |'GDP' (nominal) |2015 estimate |- | - |Total |$4.210 trillion7 (3rd) |- | - |Per capita |$33,2237 (25th) |- | colspan="2" |'Gini' (2008) |37.68 medium ·''' 76th |- | colspan="2" |'''HDI (2013) |0.8909 very high ·''' 17th |- ! colspan="2" |Currency |Yen (¥) / En 円 (JPY) |- ! colspan="2" |Time zone |JST (UTC+9) |- | - |Summer (DST) |not observed (UTC+9) |- ! colspan="2" |Date format | * yyyy-mm-dd * yyyy年m月d日 * Era yy年m月d日 (AD−1988) |- ! colspan="2" |Drives on the |left |- ! colspan="2" |Calling code |+81 |- ! colspan="2" |ISO 3166 code |JP |- ! colspan="2" |Internet TLD |.jp |} a long period of isolation in the early 17th century, which was only ended in 1853 when a United States fleet pressured Japan to open to the West. Nearly two decades of internal conflict and insurrection followed before the Meiji Emperor was restored as head of state in 1868 and the Empire of Japan was proclaimed, with the Emperor as a divine symbol of the nation. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, victories in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an Emperor and an elected legislature called the National Diet. Japan is a member of the UN, the G7, the G8, and the G20. Japan is a great power.1112131415 Japan has the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the world's fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fifth-largest exporter and fifth-largest importer. Japan ranked first in the Country Brand Index.16 Although Japan has officiallyrenounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the world's eighth largest military budget,17 used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a developed country with a high standard of living, and the country ranked high in theHuman Development Index. The Japanese population enjoying the highest life expectancy of any country in the world and the third lowest infant mortality rate.181920 Japan is the highest ranked Asian country in the Global Peace Index.21 Contents hide * 1 Etymology * 2 History ** 2.1 Prehistory and ancient history ** 2.2 Feudal era ** 2.3 Modern era * 3 Government and politics * 4 Foreign relations and military * 5 Administrative divisions * 6 Geography ** 6.1 Climate ** 6.2 Biodiversity ** 6.3 Environment * 7 Economy ** 7.1 Economic history ** 7.2 Exports ** 7.3 Imports ** 7.4 Science and technology ** 7.5 Infrastructure * 8 Demographics ** 8.1 Religion ** 8.2 Languages ** 8.3 Education ** 8.4 Health * 9 Culture ** 9.1 Art ** 9.2 Music ** 9.3 Literature ** 9.4 Cuisine ** 9.5 Sports * 10 See also * 11 References * 12 Further reading * 13 External links Etymology Main article: Names of Japan The English word Japan possibly derives from the early Mandarin Chinese or Wu Chinese pronunciation of the Japanese name,日本, which in Japanese is pronounced Nippon listen (help·info) or Nihon listen (help·info). From the Meiji Restoration until the end of World War II, the full title of Japan was Dai Nippon Teikoku (大日本帝國?), meaning "theEmpire of Great Japan". Today the name Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku (日本国?) is used as a formal modern-day equivalent; countries like Japan whose long form does not contain a descriptive designation are generally given a name appended by the character koku (国?), meaning "country", "nation" or "state". Japanese people refer to themselves as Nihonjin (日本人?) and to their language as Nihongo (日本語?). Both Nippon and Nihon''mean "sun-origin" and are often translated as ''Land of the Rising Sun. The term comes from Japanese missions to Imperial Chinaand refers to Japan's eastward position relative to China. Before Nihon came into official use, Japan was known as Wa (倭?) or''Wakoku'' (倭国?).22 The English word for Japan came to the West via early trade routes. The Old Mandarin or possibly early Wu Chinese (吳語) pronunciation of Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters 日本 'Japan' is Zeppen zəʔpən. The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang, was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect, probably Fukienese or Ningpo,23 and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe.24 An early record of the word in English is in a 1565 letter, spelled Giapan.25 History Main article: History of Japan Prehistory and ancient history The Golden Hall and five-storey pagoda of Hōryū-ji, among the oldest wooden buildings in the world, National Treasures, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site A Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of the Japanese archipelago. This was followed from around 14,000 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture, who include ancestors of both the contemporary Ainu people and Yamato people,2627 characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture.28 Decorated clay vessels from this period are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world. Around 300 BC, the Yayoi people began to enter the Japanese islands, intermingling with the Jōmon.29 The Yayoi period, starting around 500 BC, saw the introduction of practices like wet-rice farming,30 a new style of pottery,31 and metallurgy, introduced from China and Korea.32 Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese Book of Han.33 According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the 3rd century was called Yamataikoku. Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje ofKorea, but the subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China.34 Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592–710).35 The Nara period (710–784) of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered on an imperial court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). The Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literature as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired art and architecture.36 The smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.37 In 784, Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō before relocating it to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto) in 794. Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the Mongol invasions of Japan. The Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japan from Mongol fleets. This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for itsart, poetry and prose. Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem Kimigayo were written during this time.38 Buddhism began to spread during the Heian era chiefly through two major sects, Tendai by Saichō, and Shingon by Kūkai. Pure Land Buddhism (Jōdo-shū, Jōdo Shinshū) greatly becomes popular in the latter half of the 11th century. Feudal era Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan in the Genpei War, sung in the epic Tale of Heike, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After his death, the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shoguns. The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.39 The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, but was eventuallyoverthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo was himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336. Samurai could kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population.Edo period, 1798 Ashikaga Takauji established the shogunate in Muromachi, Kyoto. This was the start of the Muromachi Period (1336–1573). The Ashikaga shogunate achieved glory in the age of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, and the culture based on Zen Buddhism (art of Miyabi) prospered. This evolved to Higashiyama Culture, and prospered until the 16th century. On the other hand, the succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war (the Ōnin War) began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period ("Warring States").40 During the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial andcultural exchange between Japan and the West. This allowed Oda Nobunaga to obtain European technology and firearms, which he used to conquer many other daimyo. His consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573-1603). After he was assassinated in 1582, his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the nation in 1590 and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597. Re-engraved map of Japan Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son and used his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).41 The Tokugawa shogunate enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyo;42 and in 1639, the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period(1603–1868).43 The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued through contact with the Dutch enclave at Dejima inNagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku ("national studies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.44 Modern era On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic and political crises. The resignation of the shogun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally unified under the Emperor (the Meiji Restoration).45 Emperor Meiji (1868–1912), in whose name imperial rule was restored at the end of the Tokugawa shogunate Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin.46 Japan's population grew from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million in 1935.47 Chinese generals surrendering to the Japanese in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taishō democracy" overshadowed by increasingexpansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, on the side of the victorious Allies, to widen its influence and territorial holdings. It continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931; as a result of international condemnation of this occupation, Japan resigned from the League of Nationstwo years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, and the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Powers.48 In 1941, Japan negotiated the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact.49 Japanese officials surrendering to the Allies on September 2, 1945 in Tokyo Bay, ending World War II The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945). The Imperial Japanese Army swiftly captured the capital Nanjing and conducted the Nanking Massacre.50 In 1940, the Empire then invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.51 On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, attacks on British forces in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong and declared war, bringing the US and the UK into World War II in the Pacific.5253 After the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to anunconditional surrender on August 15.54 The war cost Japan and the rest of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere millions of lives and left much of the nation's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allies (led by the US) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese empire and restoring the independence of its conquered territories.55 The Allies also convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East on May 3, 1946 to prosecute some Japanese leaders for war crimes. However, the bacteriological research units and members of the imperial family involved in the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by theSupreme Commander for the Allied Powers despite calls for trials for both groups.56 In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 195257 and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved rapid growth to become the second-largest economy in the world, until surpassed by China in 2010. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. In the beginning of the 21st century, positive growth has signaled a gradual economic recovery.58 On March 11, 2011, Japan suffered the strongest earthquake in its recorded history; this triggered the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, one of the worst disasters in the history of nuclear power.59 Government and politics Main article: Government of Japan Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko Japan is a constitutional monarchy whereby the power of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by theconstitution as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people." Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister and other elected members of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.60 Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan; Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line to the Chrysanthemum Throne. Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives with 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age,2 with a secret ballot for all elected offices.60 The Diet is dominated by the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan and the conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). The LDP has enjoyed near continuous electoral success since 1955, except for a brief 11-month period between 1993 and 1994, and from 2009 to 2012. It holds 294 seats in the lower house and 83 seats in the upper house. The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government and is appointed by the Emperor after being designated by the Diet from among its members. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet, and he appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State. Following the LDP's landslide victory in the 2012 general election, Shinzō Abe replaced Yoshihiko Noda as the Prime Minister on December 26, 201261 and became the country's sixth prime minister to be sworn in 6 years. Although the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Emperor, the Constitution of Japan explicitly requires the Emperor to appoint whoever is designated by the Diet.60 Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.62 However, since the late 19th century the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on a draft of the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch; with the code remaining in effect with post–World War II modifications.63 Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature and has the rubber stamp of the Emperor. The Constitution requires that the Emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to oppose legislation.60 Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.64 The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes.65 Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Japan and Japan Self-Defense Forces JDS Kongō (DDG-173)guided missile destroyerlaunching a Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile Japan is a member of the G8, APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit. Japan signed a security pact withAustralia in March 200766 and with India in October 2008.67 It is the world's third largest donor of official development assistance after the United States and France, donating US$9.48 billion in 2009.68 Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States; the US-Japan security alliance acts as the cornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.69 A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 20 years, most recently for 2009 and 2010. It is one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.70 Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands, and with China over the EEZ around Okinotorishima.71 Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over the latter's abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile program (see also Six-party talks).72 Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of any country in the world.73 Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces.74 The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) is a regular participant in RIMPAC maritime exercises.75 Japan's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes. Accordingly, Japan's Self-Defence force is a usual military that has never fired shots outside Japan.76 It is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations; the deployment of troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II.74 Japan Business Federation has called on the government to lift the ban on arms exports so that Japan can join multinational projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter.77 In May 2014 Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said Japan wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility for regional security. He said Japan wanted to play a key role and offered neighboring countries Japan's support.78 Administrative divisions Further information: Administrative divisions of Japan Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. Each prefecture is further divided into cities, towns and villages.79 The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.80 Geography Main articles: Geography of Japan and Geology of Japan Topographic map of the Japanese archipelago Japan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast of East Asia. The country, including all of the islands it controls, lies between latitudes 24° and 46°N, and longitudes 122° and 146°E. The main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikokuand Kyushu. The Ryukyu Islands, which includes Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyushu. Together they are often known as theJapanese Archipelago.81 About 73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use.282 As a result, the habitable zones, mainly located in coastal areas, have extremely high population densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.83 The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are primarily the result of large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of millions of years from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene as a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate to the south, and subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk Plateto the north. Japan was originally attached to the eastern coast of the Eurasian continent. The subducting plates pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea of Japan around 15 million years ago.84 Japan has 108 active volcanoes. During the twentieth century several new volcanoes emerged, including Shōwa-shinzan on Hokkaido andMyōjin-shō off the Bayonnaise Rocks in the Pacific. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century.85 The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people.86 More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, a 9.0-magnitude87 quake which hit Japan on March 11, 2011, and triggered a large tsunami.59 Due to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire, Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes and tsunami, having the highest natural disaster risk in the developed world.88 Climate Main article: Climate of Japan Cherry blossoms of Mount Yoshino has been the subject of many plays and waka poetry Autumn maple leaves (momiji) at Kongōbu-jion Mount Kōya, a UNESCO World Heritage Site The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones: Hokkaido, Sea of Japan, Central Highland, Seto Inland Sea, Pacific Ocean, and Ryūkyū Islands. The northernmost zone, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. Precipitationis not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter.89 In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the foehn wind. The Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night; precipitation is light, though winters are usually snowy. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round.89 The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.89 The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 °C (41.2 °F) and the average summer temperature is 25.2 °C (77.4 °F).90 The highest temperature ever measured in Japan—40.9 °C (105.6 °F)—was recorded on August 16, 2007.91 The main rainy seasonbegins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north until reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshu, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.92 Biodiversity The Japanese macaques atJigokudani hot spring are notable for visiting the spa in the winter. Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.93 Japan has over 90,000 species ofwildlife, including the brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, and the Japanese giant salamander.94 A large network of national parks has been established to protect important areas of flora and fauna as well as thirty-seven Ramsar wetland sites.9596 Four sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value.97 Environment Main article: Environmental issues in Japan In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concern about the problem, the government introduced several environmental protection laws in 1970.98 The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan's lack of natural resources.99 Current environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation.100 As of June 2015, more than 40 coal-fired power plants are planned or under construction in Japan. The NGO Climate Action Network announced Japan as the winner of its "Fossil of the Day" award for "doing the most to block progress on climate action."101 Japan ranks 26th in the 2014 Environmental Performance Index, which measures a nation's commitment to environmental sustainability.102 As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference that created it, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.103 Economy Main article: Economy of Japan The Tokyo Stock Exchange, the largest stock exchange in Asia104 Economic history Some of the structural features of Japan's economic growth developed in the Edo period, such as the network of transport routes, by roadand water, and the futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers.105 During the Meiji period from 1868, Japan expanded economically with the embrace of the market economy.106 Many of today's enterprises were founded at the time, and Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia.107 The period of overall real economic growth from the 1960s to the 1980s has been called the Japanese post-war economic miracle: it averaged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and 1970s, and 3.2 percent in the 1980s and early 1990s.108 Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s during what the Japanese call the Lost Decade, largely because of the after-effects of the Japanese asset price bubble and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000.2 The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005; GDP growth for that year was 2.8 percent, surpassing the growth rates of the US andEuropean Union during the same period.109 As of 2012, Japan is the third largest national economy in the world, after the United States and China, in terms of nominal GDP,110 and the fourth largest national economy in the world, after the United States, China and India, in terms of purchasing power parity.7 As of 2014, Japan's public debt was estimated at more than 200 percent of its annual gross domestic product, the largest of any nation in the world.111 In August 2011, Moody's rating has cut Japan's long-term sovereign debt rating one notch from Aa3 to Aa2 inline with the size of the country's deficit and borrowing level. The large budget deficits and government debt since the 2009 global recession and followed by earthquake and tsunami in March 2011 made the rating downgrade.112 The service sector accounts for three quarters of the gross domestic product.113 Exports A plug-in hybrid car manufactured by Toyota, one of the world's largest carmakers. Japan is the second-largest producer of automobiles in the world.114 Japan has a large industrial capacity, and is home to some of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles,electronics, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, textiles, and processed foods. Agricultural businesses in Japan cultivate 13 percent of Japan's land, and Japan accounts for nearly 15 percent of the global fish catch, second only to China.2 As of 2010, Japan's labor force consisted of some 65.9 million workers.115 Japan has a low unemployment rate of around four percent. Some 20 million people, around 17 per cent of the population, were below the poverty line in 2007.116 Housing in Japan is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas.117 Japan's exports amounted to US$4,210 per capita in 2005. As of 2012, Japan's main export markets were China (18.1 percent), the United States (17.8 percent), South Korea (7.7 percent), Thailand (5.5 percent) and Hong Kong (5.1 percent). Its main exports are transportation equipment, motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors and auto parts.118 Japan's main import markets as of 2012 were China (21.3 percent), the US (8.8 percent), Australia (6.4 percent), Saudi Arabia (6.2 percent), United Arab Emirates (5.0 percent), South Korea (4.6 percent) and Qatar (4.0 percent).2 Imports Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries. By market share measures, domestic markets are the least open of any OECD country.119 Junichiro Koizumi's administration began some pro-competition reforms, and foreign investment in Japan has soared.120 Japan ranks 27th of 189 countries in the 2014 Ease of doing business index and has one of the smallest tax revenues of the developed world. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are relatively common in the Japanese work environment.119121 Japanese companies are known for management methods like "The Toyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.122 Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota, Nintendo, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba, Sharp, Nippon Steel,Nippon Oil, and Seven & I Holdings Co..123 It has some of the world's largest banks, and the Tokyo Stock Exchange (known for its Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices) stands as the second largest in the world by market capitalization.124 As of 2006, Japan was home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3 percent.125 In 2013, it was announced that Japan would be importing shale natural gas.126 Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in Japan The Japanese Experiment Module(Kibo) at the International Space Station Japan is a leading nation in scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and biomedical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world.127 Japan is a world leader in fundamental scientific research, having produced nineteen Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,128 three Fields medalists,129 and one Gauss Prize laureate.130 Some of Japan's more prominent technological contributions are in the fields of electronics, automobiles, machinery, earthquake engineering, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in roboticsproduction and use, possessing more than 20% (300,000 of 1.3 million) of the world's industrial robots as of 2013131—though their share was historically even higher, representing one-half of all industrial robots worldwide in 2000.132 The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.133 Japan's plans in space exploration include: launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki;134135 developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2016;136 and building a moon base by 2030.137 On September 14, 2007, it launched lunar explorer "SELENE" ('Sel'enological and 'En'gineering 'E'xplorer) on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known as Kaguya, after the lunar princess of The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter.138 Kaguya is the largest lunar mission since the Apollo program. Its purpose is to gather data on the moon's origin and evolution. It entered a lunar orbit on October 4,139140 flying at an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi).141 The probe's mission was ended when it was deliberately crashed by JAXA into the Moon on June 11, 2009.142 Infrastructure Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transport in Japan A high-speed Shinkansen "Bullet train" As of 2011, 46.1 percent of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 21.3 percent from coal, 21.4 percent from natural gas, 4.0 percent from nuclear power, and 3.3 percent from hydropower. Nuclear power produced 9.2 percent of Japan's electricity, as of 2011, down from 24.9 percent the previous year.143 However, by May 2012 all of the country's nuclear power plants had been taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service.144 As of November 2014, two reactors at Sendai are likely to restart in early 2015.145 Given its heavy dependence on imported energy,146 Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.147 Japan's road spending has been extensive.148 Its 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of transportation.149 A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and is operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are inexpensive; car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy efficiency. However, at just 50 percent of all distance traveled, car usage is the lowest of all G8 countries.150 Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation,Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities and Japanese trains are known for their safety and punctuality.151152Proposals for a new Maglev route between Tokyo and Osaka are at an advanced stage.153 There are 175 airports in Japan;2 the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, isAsia's second-busiest airport.154 The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport, Kansai International Airport and Chūbu Centrair International Airport.155Nagoya Port is the country's largest and busiest port, accounting for 10 percent of Japan's trade value.156 Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese people and Ethnic issues in Japan Ainu, an ethnic minority people from Japan A Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine Japan's population is estimated at around 127.1 million,2 with 80% of the population living on Honshū. Japanese society is linguisticallyand culturally homogeneous,157 composed of 98.5% ethnic Japanese,2 with small populations of foreign workers.157 Zainichi Koreans,158 Zainichi Chinese, Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent,159 and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are among the small minority groups in Japan.160 In 2003, there were about 134,700 non-Latin American Western and 345,500 Latin American expatriates, 274,700 of whom were Brazilians (said to be primarily Japanese descendants, or nikkeijin, along with their spouses),159 the largest community of Westerners.161 The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people; primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu162 and Ryukyuan peoples, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin.163 There are persons of mixed ancestry incorporated among the Yamato, such as those from Ogasawara Archipelago.164 In spite of the widespread belief that Japan is ethnically homogeneous (in 2009, foreign-born non-naturalized workers made up only 1.7% of the total population),165 also because of the absence of ethnicity and/or race statistics for Japanese nationals, at least one analysis describes Japan as a multiethnic society, for example, John Lie.166 However, this statement is refused by many sectors of Japanese society, who still tend to preserve the idea of Japan being a monocultural society and with this ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally rejected any need to recognize ethnic differences in Japan, even as such claims have been rejected by such ethnic minorities as the Ainu and Ryukyuan people. Former Japanese Prime Minister Tarō Asō has once described Japan as being a nation of "one race, one civilization, one language and one culture".167 Japan has the second longest overall life expectancy at birth of any country in the world: 83.5 years for persons born in the period 2010–2015.1920 The Japanese population is rapidly aging as a result of a post–World War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates. In 2012, about 24.1 percent of the population was over 65, and the proportion is projected to rise to almost 40 percent by 2050.168 The changes in demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in workforce population and increase in the cost of social security benefits like the public pension plan.169 A growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remain childless.170 In 2011, Japan's population dropped for a fifth year, falling by 204,000 people to 126.24 million people. This was the greatest decline since at least 1947, when comparable figures were first compiled.171 This decline was made worse by the March 11 earthquake and tsunami, which killed nearly 16,000 people with approximately another 2,600 still listed as missing as of 2014.172 Japan's population is expected to drop to 95 million by 2050;168173 demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.170 Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.174175 Japan accepts a steady flow of 15,000 new Japanese citizens by naturalization (帰化) per year.176 According to the UNHCR, in 2012 Japan accepted just 18 refugees for resettlement,177 while the US took in 76,000.178 Japan suffers from a high suicide rate.179180 In 2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for the twelfth straight year.181 Suicide is the leading cause of death for people under 30.182 Religion Main article: Religion in Japan The torii of Itsukushima Shrine nearHiroshima, one of the Three Views of Japan and a UNESCO World Heritage Site Japan has full religious freedom based on Article 20 of its Constitution. Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Buddhism or Shinto, including a large number of followers of a syncretism of both religions.2183 However, these estimates are based on people affiliated with a temple, rather than the number of true believers. Other studies have suggested that only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion.184 According to Edwin Reischauer and Marius Jansen, some 70–80% of the Japanese do not consider themselves believers in any religion.185 Nevertheless, the level of participation remains high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.186 Japanese streets are decorated onTanabata, Obon and Christmas. Fewer than one percent of Japanese are Christian.187 Other minority religions include Islam, Hinduism,Sikhism, and Judaism, and since the mid-19th century numerous new religious movements have emerged in Japan.188 Languages Main articles: Languages of Japan and Japanese language More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.2 Japanese is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative status of speaker and listener. Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on cursive script and radical of kanji), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.189 Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami, Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni), also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain. Few children learn these languages,190 but in recent years the local governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional languages. The Okinawan Japanese dialect is also spoken in the region. The Ainu language, which has no proven relationship to Japanese or any other language, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaido.191 Public and private schools generally require students to take Japanese language classes as well as English language courses.192193 Education Main article: Education in Japan Announcement of the results of theentrance examinations to the University of Tokyo Primary schools, secondary schools and universities were introduced in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.194 Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and middle school, which together last for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, as of 2005 about 75.9 percent of high school graduates attended a university, junior college, trade school, or other higher education institution.195 The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.196197 The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as sixth best in the world.198 Health Main articles: Health in Japan and Health care system in Japan In Japan, health care is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.199 Patients are free to select the physicians or facilities of their choice.200 Culture Main article: Culture of Japan See also: Japanese popular culture Kinkaku-ji or 'The Temple of the Golden Pavilion' in Kyoto, Special Historic Site, Special Place of Scenic Beauty, and UNESCO World Heritage Site; its torching by a monk in 1950 is the subject of a novel by Mishima. Japanese culture has evolved greatly from its origins. Contemporary culture combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh,dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.201Nineteen sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, fifteen of which are of cultural significance.97 Art 19th-century Ukiyo-e woodblock printing The Great Wave off Kanagawa, one of the best recognized works of Japanese art in the world. Further information: Japanese art, Japanese architecture, Japanese garden and Japanese aesthetics The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the prototype of Japanese architecture.202 Largely of wood, traditional housing and manytemple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space.203 Japanese sculpture, largely of wood, and Japanese painting are among the oldest of the Japanese arts, with early figurative paintings dating back to at least 300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas.204 The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism.204 Famous ukiyo-e artists include Hokusai and Hiroshige. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.205 Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular since the 1980s.206 Music Main article: Music of Japan Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the 14th century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.207 Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, now forms an integral part of Japanese culture. The imperial court ensemble Gagaku has influenced the work of some modern Western composers.208 Notable classical composers from Japan include Toru Takemitsu and Rentarō Taki. Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop, or Japanese popular music.209 Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity in Japan. A 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional pursuits such as flower arranging (ikebana) or tea ceremonies.210 Literature Main articles: Japanese literature and Japanese poetry 12th-century illustrated handscroll of''The Tale of Genji'', a National Treasure The earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'yōshū poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.211212 In the early Heian period, the system of phonograms known as kana (Hiragana andKatakana) was developed. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.213 An account of Heian court life is given in The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's first novel.214215 During the Edo period, the chōnin ("townspeople") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of the works of Saikaku, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogue Oku no Hosomichi.216 The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors—Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe(1994).213 Cuisine Breakfast at a ryokan or inn Main article: Japanese cuisine Japanese cuisine is based on combining staple foods, typically Japanese rice or noodles, with a soup and okazu — dishes made fromfish, vegetable, tofu and the like – to add flavor to the staple food. In the early modern era ingredients such as red meats that had previously not been widely used in Japan were introduced. Japanese cuisine is known for its emphasis on seasonality of food,217 quality of ingredients and presentation. Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients. The Michelin Guide has awarded restaurants in Japan more Michelin stars than the rest of the world combined.218 Sports Main article: Sport in Japan Sumo wrestlers form around the referee during the ring-entering ceremony Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.219 Japanese martial arts such as judo, karate and kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system.220 Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan has hosted the Winter Olympics twice: Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998.221 Tokyo will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics twice.222 Japan is the most successful Asian Rugby Union country, winning the Asian Five Nations a record 6 times and winning the newly formed IRB Pacific Nations Cup in 2011. Japan will host the 2019 IRB Rugby World Cup.223 Baseball is currently the most popular spectator sport in the country. Japan's top professional league, now known as Nippon Professional Baseball, was established in 1936.224 Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football has also gained a wide following.225 Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.226 Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times.227 Also, Japan recently won the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011.228 Golf is also popular in Japan,229 as are forms of auto racing like the Super GT series and Formula Nippon.230 The country has produced one NBA player, Yuta Tabuse.231 See also * Tourism in Japan * Outline of Japan * Index of Japan-related articles References # '''Jump up^ (in Japanese). Legislative Bureau of the House of Councillors. Retrieved January 19, 2009. # ^ Jump up to:a'' ''b c'' ''d e'' ''f g'' ''h i'' ''j k'' "CIA Factbook: Japan". Cia.gov. Retrieved November 9, 2011. # '''Jump up^ According to legend, Japan was founded on this date by Emperor Jimmu, the country's first Emperor. # Jump up^ "Japan Statistical Yearbook 2010" (PDF). Statistics Bureau. p. 17. RetrievedJanuary 15, 2011. # Jump up^ "Population Estimates by Age (5-Year Age Group) and Sex". Retrieved June 2, 2015. # Jump up^ "Population Count based on the 2010 Census Released" (PDF). Statistics Bureau of Japan. Retrieved October 26, 2011. # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b'' ''c d'' ''e "Japan". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved April 15, 2015. # Jump up^ "World Factbook: Gini Index". CIA. Retrieved May 11, 2011. # Jump up^ "2014 Human Development Report" (PDF). 2014. pp. 21–25. Retrieved July 27, 2014. # Jump up^ "「東京都の人口（推計）」の概要（平成26年2月1日現在） (2014)". Tokyo Metropolitan Government (JPN). Retrieved March 20, 2014. # Jump up^ "The Seven Great Powers". American-Interest. Retrieved July 1, 2015. # Jump up^ Peter Howard. "Great Powers". Encarta. MSN. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009. Retrieved December 20, 2008. # Jump up^ T. V. Paul, James J. Wirtz, Michel Fortmann (2005). "Great+power" Balance of Power. United States of America: State University of New York Press, 2005. pp. 59, 282.ISBN 0791464016. Accordingly, the great powers after the Cold War are Britain, China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, and the United States p.59 # Jump up^ Asia’s Overlooked Great Power, APR 18, 2007 # Jump up^ Baron, Joshua (22 January 2014). Great Power Peace and American Primacy: The Origins and Future of a New International Order. United States: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN 1137299487. # Jump up^ http://www.futurebrand.com/news/futurebrand-launches-the-country-brand-index-2014-15 # Jump up^ "SIPRI Yearbook 2012 - 15 countries with the highest military expenditure in 2011". Sipri.org. Retrieved April 27, 2013. # Jump up^ "WHO Life expectancy". World Health Organization. June 1, 2013. Retrieved June 1,2013. # ^ Jump up to:a'' ''b "WHO: Life expectancy in Israel among highest in the world". Haaretz. May 2009. Retrieved January 15, 2011. # ^ Jump up to:a'' ''b "Table A.17" (PDF). United Nations World Population Prospects, 2006 revision. UN. Retrieved January 15, 2011. # Jump up^ http://www.visionofhumanity.org/#/page/our-gpi-findings # Jump up^ Piggott, Joan R. (1997). The emergence of Japanese kingship. Stanford University Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 0-8047-2832-1. # Jump up^ Boxer, Charles Ralph (1951). The Christian century in Japan 1549-1650. University of California Press. pp. 1–14. ISBN 1-85754-035-2. # Jump up^ C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century In Japan 1549–1650, University of California Press, 1951p. 11, 28—36, 49—51, ISBN 1-85754-035-2 # Jump up^ Mancall, Peter C. (2006). "Of the Ilande of Giapan, 1565". Travel narratives from the age of discovery: an anthology. Oxford University Press. pp. 156–157. # Jump up^ Matsumara, Hirofumi; Dodo, Yukio; Dodo, Yukio (2009). "Dental characteristics of Tohoku residents in Japan: implications for biological affinity with ancient Emishi".Anthropological Science 117 (2): 95–105. doi:10.1537/ase.080325. # Jump up^ Hammer, Michael F.; Karafet, TM; Park, H; Omoto, K; Harihara, S; Stoneking, M; Horai, S et al. (2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics 51 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. PMID 16328082. # Jump up^ Travis, John. "Jomon Genes". University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved January 15, 2011. # Jump up^ Denoon, Donald; Hudson, Mark (2001). Multicultural Japan: palaeolithic to postmodern. Cambridge University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 0-521-00362-8. # Jump up^ "Road of rice plant". National Science Museum of Japan. Retrieved January 15, 2011. # Jump up^ "Kofun Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved January 15, 2011. # Jump up^ "Yayoi Culture". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved January 15, 2011. # Jump up^ Takashi, Okazaki; Goodwin, Janet (1993). "Japan and the continent". The Cambridge history of Japan, Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 275. ISBN 0-521-22352-0. # Jump up^ Brown, Delmer M., ed. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–149. # Jump up^ Beasley, William Gerald (1999). The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-520-22560-0. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 64–79. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4. # Jump up^ Hays, J.N. (2005). Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history. ABC-CLIO. p. 31. ISBN 1-85109-658-2. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 79–87, 122–123. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 106–112. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1. # Jump up^ Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. pp. 42, 217. ISBN 0-8047-0525-9. # Jump up^ Turnbull, Stephen (2010). Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Osprey Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-84603-960-7. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 142–143. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1. # Jump up^ Toby, Ronald P. (1977). "Reopening the Question of Sakoku: Diplomacy in the Legitimation of the Tokugawa Bakufu". Journal of Japanese Studies 3''' (2): 323–363.doi:10.2307/132115. # '''Jump up^ Ohtsu, M.; Ohtsu, Makoto (1999). "Japanese National Values and Confucianism".Japanese Economy 27 (2): 45–59. doi:10.2753/JES1097-203X270245. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 289–296. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1. # Jump up^ Matsusaka, Y. Tak (2009). "The Japanese Empire". In Tsutsui, William M. Companion to Japanese History. Blackwell. pp. 224–241. ISBN 9781-4051-1690-9. # Jump up^ Hiroshi, Shimizu; Hitoshi, Hirakawa (1999). Japan and Singapore in the world economy : Japan's economic advance into Singapore, 1870–1965. Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-415-19236-1. # Jump up^ "The Axis Alliance". iBiblio. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 442. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1. # Jump up^ "Judgment International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities)". iBiblio. November 1948. # Jump up^ Worth, Roland H., Jr. (1995). No Choice But War: the United States Embargo Against Japan and the Eruption of War in the Pacific. McFarland. pp. 56, 86. ISBN 0-7864-0141-9. # Jump up^ . 馬 樹禮 (in Japanese). 産経新聞社. April 2005. Retrieved October 2, 2009. # Jump up^ "The Kingdom of the Netherlands Declares War with Japan". iBiblio. RetrievedOctober 2, 2009. # Jump up^ Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security 18 (2): 154–201. doi:10.2307/2539100. # Jump up^ Watt, Lori (2010). When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan. Harvard University Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-674-05598-8. # Jump up^ Thomas, J.E. (1996). Modern Japan. Longman. pp. 284–287. ISBN 0-582-25962-2. # Jump up^ Coleman, Joseph (March 6, 2007). "'52 coup plot bid to rearm Japan: CIA". The Japan Times. Retrieved April 3, 2007. # Jump up^ "Japan scraps zero interest rates". BBC News. July 14, 2006. Retrieved December 28,2006. # ^ Jump up to:a'' ''b Fackler, Martin; Drew, Kevin (March 11, 2011). "Devastation as Tsunami Crashes Into Japan". The New York Times. Retrieved March 11, 2011. # ^ Jump up to:a'' ''b c'' ''d "The Constitution of Japan". Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet. November 3, 1946. Retrieved February 14, 2014. # Jump up^ Fackler, Martin (December 27, 2013). "Ex-Premier Is Chosen To Govern Japan Again".The New York Times (New York). Retrieved March 12, 2013. # Jump up^ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). Cavendish. pp. 55–58. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0. # Jump up^ Kanamori, Shigenari (January 1, 1999). "German influences on Japanese Pre-War Constitution and Civil Code". European Journal of Law and Economics 7''' (1): 93–95.doi:10.1023/A:1008688209052. # '''Jump up^ "The Japanese Judicial System". Office of the Prime Minister of Japan. RetrievedMarch 27, 2007. # Jump up^ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). Cavendish. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0. # Jump up^ "Japan-Australia Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved August 25, 2010. # Jump up^ "Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation between Japan and India". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. October 22, 2008. Retrieved August 25, 2010. # Jump up^ "Net Official Development Assistance in 2009" (PDF). OECD. Retrieved January 16,2011. # Jump up^ Michael Green. "Japan Is Back: Why Tokyo's New Assertiveness Is Good for Washington". Real Clear Politics. Retrieved March 28, 2007. # Jump up^ "UK backs Japan for UNSC bid". Central Chronicle. Archived from the original on February 21, 2007. Retrieved March 28, 2007. # Jump up^ Schoenbaum, Thomas J., ed. (2008). Peace in Northeast Asia. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. pp. 26–29. # Jump up^ Chanlett-Avery, Emma. "North Korea's Abduction of Japanese Citizens and the Six-Party Talks" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Federation of American Scientists. RetrievedJanuary 7, 2011. # Jump up^ "The 15 countries with the highest military expenditure in 2009". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # ^ Jump up to:a'' ''b "Tokyo says it will bring troops home from Iraq". International Herald Tribune. June 20, 2006. Retrieved March 28, 2007. # Jump up^ "About RIMPAC". Government of Singapore. Retrieved March 2, 2014. # Jump up^ 正論, May 2014 (171). # Jump up^ "Japan business lobby wants weapon export ban eased". Reuters. July 13, 2010. Retrieved April 12, 2011. # Jump up^ "Abe offers Japan's help in maintaining regional security". Japan Herald. RetrievedMay 31, 2014. # Jump up^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 84–85.ISBN 0333710002. # Jump up^ Mabuchi, Masaru (May 2001). "Municipal Amalgamation in Japan" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved December 28, 2006. # Jump up^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 8–11. ISBN 0-333-710002. # Jump up^ "Japan". US Department of State. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ "World Population Prospects". UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Archived from the original on March 21, 2007. Retrieved March 27, 2007. # Jump up^ Barnes, Gina L. (2003). "Origins of the Japanese Islands" (PDF). University of Durham. Retrieved August 11, 2009. # Jump up^ "Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan". Oregon State University. Archived from the original on February 4, 2007. Retrieved March 27, 2007. # Jump up^ James, C.D. (2002). "The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire" (PDF). University of California Berkeley. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ "USGS analysis as of March 12, 2011". Earthquake.usgs.gov. June 23, 2011. Retrieved November 9, 2011. # Jump up^ 2013 World Risk Report # ^ Jump up to:a'' ''b c'' Karan, Pradyumna Prasad; Gilbreath, Dick (2005). Japan in the 21st century. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 18–21, 41. ISBN 0-8131-2342-9. # '''Jump up^ "Climate". JNTO. Retrieved March 2, 2011. # Jump up^ "Gifu Prefecture sees highest temperature ever recorded in Japan – 40.9". Japan News Review Society. August 16, 2007. Retrieved August 16, 2007. # Jump up^ "Essential Info: Climate". JNTO. Retrieved April 1, 2007. # Jump up^ "Flora and Fauna: Diversity and regional uniqueness". Embassy of Japan in the USA. Archived from the original on February 13, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007. # Jump up^ "The Wildlife in Japan" (PDF). Ministry of the Environment. Retrieved February 19,2011. # Jump up^ "National Parks of Japan". Ministry of the Environment. Retrieved May 11, 2011. # Jump up^ "The Annotated Ramsar List: Japan". Ramsar. Retrieved May 11, 2011. # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b'' "Japan – Properties Inscribed on the World Heritage List". UNESCO. RetrievedJuly 5, 2011. # '''Jump up^ (in Japanese). Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency. Retrieved March 2, 2014. # Jump up^ Sekiyama, Takeshi. "Japan's international cooperation for energy efficiency and conservation in Asian region" (PDF). Energy Conservation Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 16, 2008. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ "Environmental Performance Review of Japan" (PDF). OECD. Retrieved January 16,2011. # Jump up^ Elaine Kurtenbach (June 6, 2015). "At G-7, Japan's energy plan is not all that green".Newsgroup: Press Associated Press. # Jump up^ "Environmental Performance Index: Japan". Yale University. Retrieved February 3,2014. # Jump up^ "Japan sees extra emission cuts to 2020 goal -minister". World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Retrieved March 2, 2011. # Jump up^ "Japan's Tokyo Stock Exchange is the second largest stock market with a market value of $3.8 trillion". The Economic Times (India). June 19, 2010. Retrieved June 19, 2010. # Jump up^ Howe, Christopher (1996). The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy. Hurst & Company. pp. 58f. ISBN 1-85065-538-3. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 312–314. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1. # Jump up^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0-333-71000-2. # Jump up^ Ryan, Liam (January 1, 2000). "The "Asian economic miracle" unmasked: The political economy of the reality". International Journal of Social Economics 27 (7–10): 802–815.doi:10.1108/03068290010335235. # Jump up^ Masake, Hisane (March 2, 2006). "A farewell to zero". Asia Times. RetrievedJanuary 16, 2011. # Jump up^ Inman, James (January 21, 2011). "China confirmed as World's Second Largest Economy". The Guardian (London). Retrieved January 21, 2011. # Jump up^ "World Factbook, Country comparison: Public debt". CIA. Retrieved 2015-07-08. # Jump up^ "Moody's cuts Japan's debt rating on deficit concerns". BBC News. August 24, 2011. # Jump up^ "Manufacturing and Construction". Statistical Handbook of Japan. Statistics Bureau. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ "World Motor Vehicle Production by Country" (PDF). OICA. Retrieved January 16,2011. # Jump up^ "Background Note: Japan". US State Department. Retrieved March 19, 2011. # Jump up^ Fackler, Martin (April 21, 2010). "Japan Tries to Face Up to Growing Poverty Problem".The New York Times. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ "2008 Housing and Land Survey". Statistics Bureau. Retrieved January 20, 2011. # Jump up^ "Field listings : Exports - COMMODITIES". Central Intelligence Agency. 2014. Retrieved July 1, 2015. # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b'' "Economic survey of Japan 2008". OECD. Retrieved August 25, 2010. # '''Jump up^ "Foreign investment in Japan soars". BBC. June 29, 2005. Retrieved January 16,2011. # Jump up^ "Japan's Economy: Free at last". The Economist. July 20, 2006. Retrieved January 23,2011. # Jump up^ "Activist shareholders swarm in Japan". The Economist. June 28, 2007. RetrievedJanuary 23, 2011. # Jump up^ "Japan 500 2007". Financial Times. Retrieved January 23, 2011. # Jump up^ "Market Data". New York Stock Exchange. January 31, 2006. Retrieved August 11,2007. # Jump up^ "The Forbes 2000". Forbes. Retrieved January 7, 2011. # Jump up^ Abe Says Japan, Canada Agree to Cooperate on Natural Gas # Jump up^ McDonald, Joe (December 4, 2006). "China to spend $136 billion on R&D".BusinessWeek. # Jump up^ "Japanese Nobel Laureates". Kyoto University. 2009. Retrieved November 7, 2009. # Jump up^ "Japanese Fields Medalists". Kyoto University. 2009. Retrieved November 7, 2009. # Jump up^ "Dr. Kiyoshi Ito receives Gauss Prize". Kyoto University. 2009. Retrieved November 7,2009. # Jump up^ http://www.ifr.org/industrial-robots/statistics/ # Jump up^ "The Boom in Robot Investment Continues". UN Economic Commission for Europe. October 17, 2000. Retrieved December 28, 2006. # Jump up^ "Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Homepage". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. August 3, 2006. Retrieved March 28, 2007. # Jump up^ "JAXA | Venus Climate Orbiter "AKATSUKI" (PLANET-C)". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved December 4, 2010. # Jump up^ "ISAS | Venus Meteorology AKATSUKI (PLANET-C)". Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved December 4, 2010. # Jump up^ "ESA Science & Technology: Fact Sheet". esa.int. Retrieved February 5, 2014. # Jump up^ "Japan Plans Moon Base by 2030". MoonDaily. August 3, 2006. Retrieved March 27,2007. # Jump up^ ""KAGUYA" selected as SELENE's nickname". Retrieved October 13, 2007. # Jump up^ "Japan Successfully Launches Lunar Explorer "Kaguya"". Japan Corporate News Network. Retrieved August 25, 2010. # Jump up^ "Japan launches first lunar probe". BBC News. September 14, 2007. RetrievedAugust 25, 2010. # Jump up^ "JAXA, KAGUYA (SELENE) Image Taking of "Full Earth-Rise" by HDTV". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved August 25, 2010. # Jump up^ "Japanese probe crashes into Moon". BBC News. June 11, 2009. Retrieved April 12,2011. # Jump up^ "Energy". Statistical Handbook of Japan 2013. Statistics Bureau. RetrievedFebruary 14, 2014. # Jump up^ Tsukimori, Osamu (May 5, 2012). "Japan nuclear power-free as last reactor shuts".Reuters. Retrieved May 8, 2012. # Jump up^ "Japan governor approves Sendai reactor restart". BBC News. November 7, 2014. # Jump up^ "Can nuclear power save Japan from peak oil?". Our World 2.0. February 2, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011. # Jump up^ "Japan". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved March 15, 2011. # Jump up^ Pollack, Andrew (March 1, 1997). "Japan's Road to Deep Deficit is Paved with Public Works". The New York Times. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ "Transport". Statistical Handbook of Japan 2007. Statistics Bureau. Retrieved March 2,2014. # Jump up^ "Transport in Japan". International Transport Statistics Database. International Road Assessment Program. Retrieved February 17, 2009. (subscription required) # Jump up^ "About the Shinkansen – Safety". Central Japan Railway Company. RetrievedOctober 17, 2011. # Jump up^ "Corporate Culture as Strong Diving Force for Punctuality- Another "Just in Time"". Hitachi. Archived from the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved April 19, 2009. # Jump up^ "Japan to approve plans for a new super-train". The Independent (London). April 27, 2011. Retrieved May 11, 2011. # Jump up^ "Year to Date Passenger Traffic". Airports Council International. November 11, 2010. Retrieved March 2, 2014. # Jump up^ Nakagawa, Dai; Matsunaka, Ryoji (2006). Transport Policy and Funding. Elsevier. p. 63.ISBN 0-08-044852-6. # Jump up^ "Port Profile". Port of Nagoya. Retrieved January 7, 2011. # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b'' "'Multicultural Japan' remains a pipe dream". Japan Times. March 27, 2007. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # '''Jump up^ "Japan-born Koreans live in limbo". The New York Times. April 2, 2005. RetrievedJanuary 16, 2011. # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b'' Onishi, Norimitsu (November 1, 2008). "An Enclave of Brazilians Is Testing Insular Japan". The New York Times. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # '''Jump up^ "'Home' is where the heartbreak is for Japanese-Peruvians". Asia Times. October 16, 1999. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ "Registered Foreigners in Japan by Nationality" (PDF). Statistics Bureau. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 24, 2005. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ Fogarty, Philippa (June 6, 2008). "Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu". BBC. Retrieved June 7, 2008. # Jump up^ "The Invisible Race". Time. January 8, 1973. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ McCormack, Gavan. "Dilemmas of Development on The Ogasawara Islands," JPRI Occasional Paper, No. 15 (August 1999). # Jump up^ "Japan to Immigrants: Thanks, But You Can Go Home Now". Time. April 20, 2009. # Jump up^ John Lie Multiethnic Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001) # Jump up^ "Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race'". The Japan Times. October 18, 2005. # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b'' "Statistical Handbook of Japan 2013: Chapter 2—Population". Statistics Bureau. Retrieved February 14, 2014. # '''Jump up^ Gonzalo Garland et al "Dynamics of Demographic Development and its impact on Personal Saving : case of Japan", with Albert Ando, Andrea Moro, Juan Pablo Cordoba, in''Ricerche Economiche'', Vol 49, August 1995 # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b'' Ogawa, Naohiro. "Demographic Trends and their implications for Japan's future".Transcript of speech delivered on 7 March 1997. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. RetrievedMay 14, 2006. # '''Jump up^ "Japan Population Drops Most Since World War II". January 2, 2012. # Jump up^ Ryall, Julian (January 3, 2012). "Japan's population contracts at fastest rate since at least 1947". The Telegraph. Retrieved October 29, 2013. # Jump up^ Forecast provided by International Futures # Jump up^ Sakanaka, Hidenori (October 5, 2005). "Japan Immigration Policy Institute: Director's message". Japan Immigration Policy Institute. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved January 5, 2007. # Jump up^ French, Howard (July 24, 2003). "Insular Japan Needs, but Resists, Immigration". The New York Times. Retrieved February 21, 2007. # Jump up^ (in Japanese). Ministry of Justice. Retrieved March 17,2011. # Jump up^ "2012 saw record-high 2,545 people apply for refugee status in Japan". Japan Times. March 20, 2013. # Jump up^ "Presidential Memorandum--Fiscal Year 2012 Refugee Admissions Numbers and Authorizations of In-Country Refugee Status". The White House. September 30, 2011. # Jump up^ Strom, Stephanie (July 15, 1999). "In Japan, Mired in Recession, Suicides Soar". The New York Times. Retrieved September 20, 2008. # Jump up^ Lewis, Leo (June 19, 2008). "Japan gripped by suicide epidemic". The Times. Retrieved September 20, 2008. # Jump up^ "Bare statistics mask human cost of Japan's high suicide rate". Japan Today. March 31, 2010. Retrieved February 3, 2014. # Jump up^ Ozawa-de Silva, Chikako (December 2008). "Too Lonely to Die Alone: Internet Suicide Pacts and Existential Suffering in Japan". Cult Med Psychiatry 32 (4): 516–551.doi:10.1007/s11013-008-9108-0. PMID 18800195. # Jump up^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (September 15, 2006). "International Religious Freedom Report 2006". US Department of State. Retrieved December 4, 2007. # Jump up^ Kisala, Robert (2005). Wargo, Robert, ed. The Logic Of Nothingness: A Study of Nishida Kitarō. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 0-8248-2284-6. # Jump up^ Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather; Jansen, Marius B. (1988). The Japanese today: change and continuity (2nd ed.). Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-674-47184-9. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 72. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1. # Jump up^ Kato, Mariko (February 24, 2009). "Christianity's long history in the margins". Japan Times. # Jump up^ Clarke, Peter, ed. (1993). The World's religions : understanding the living faiths. Reader's Digest. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-89577-501-6. # Jump up^ Miyagawa, Shigeru. "The Japanese Language". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ Heinrich, Patrick (January 2004). "Language Planning and Language Ideology in the Ryūkyū Islands". Language Policy 3''' (2): 153–179.doi:10.1023/B:LPOL.0000036192.53709.fc. # '''Jump up^ "15 families keep ancient language alive in Japan". UN. Archived from the originalon January 6, 2008. Retrieved March 27, 2007. # Jump up^ Ellington, Lucien (September 1, 2005). "Japan Digest: Japanese Education". Indiana University. Archived from the original on April 27, 2006. Retrieved April 27, 2006. # Jump up^ Ambasciata d'Italia a Tokio: Lo studio della lingua e della cultura italiana in Giappone. # Jump up^ Ellington, Lucien (December 1, 2003). "Beyond the Rhetoric: Essential Questions About Japanese Education". Foreign Policy Research Institute. Retrieved April 1, 2007. # Jump up^ "School Education" (PDF). MEXT. Retrieved March 2, 2014. # Jump up^ "TOP – 100". Global Universities Ranking. 2009. Retrieved March 22, 2010. # Jump up^ "QS World University Rankings 2010". QS TopUniversities. 2010. RetrievedJanuary 15, 2010. # Jump up^ "OECD's PISA survey shows some countries making significant gains in learning outcomes". OECD. Retrieved January 16, 2011. # Jump up^ Rodwin, Victor. "Health Care in Japan". New York University. Retrieved March 10,2007. # Jump up^ "Health Insurance: General Characteristics". National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. Retrieved March 28, 2007. # Jump up^ "Administration of Cultural Affairs in Japan". Agency for Cultural Affairs. RetrievedMay 11, 2011. # Jump up^ Tange, Kenzo; Kawazoe, Noboru (1965). Ise: Prototype of Japanese Architecture. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. # Jump up^ Kazuo, Nishi; Kazuo, Hozumi (1995). What is Japanese Architecture?: A Survey of Traditional Japanese Architecture with a List of Sites and a Map. Kodansha. ISBN 978-4-7700-1992-9. # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b'' Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard (2010). Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African, and Pacific Art and the London Avant-Garde. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959369-9. # '''Jump up^ "A History of Manga". NMP International. Retrieved March 2, 2014. # Jump up^ Herman, Leonard; Horwitz, Jer; Kent, Steve; Miller, Skyler (2002). "The History of Video Games" (PDF). GameSpot. Archived from the original on February 3, 2014. RetrievedApril 1, 2007. # Jump up^ Malm, William P. (2000). Traditional Japanese music and musical instruments (New ed.). Kodansha International. pp. 31–45. ISBN 978-4-7700-2395-7. # Jump up^ See for example, Olivier Messiaen, Sept haïkaï (1962), (Olivier Messiaen: a research and information guide, Routledge, 2008, By Vincent Perez Benitez, page 67) and (Messiaen the Theologian, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2010, page 243-65, By Andrew Shenton) # Jump up^ Campion, Chris (August 22, 2005). "J-Pop History". The Observer (London). RetrievedApril 1, 2007. # Jump up^ Martinez, D.P., ed. (1998). The worlds of Japanese popular culture: gender, shifting boundaries and global cultures (Repr. ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-521-63729-9. # Jump up^ Keene, Donald (2000). Seeds in the Heart: Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11441-7. # Jump up^ "Asian Studies Conference, Japan (2000)". Meiji Gakuin University. Retrieved April 1,2007. # ^ Jump up to:'''''a b "Windows on Asia—Literature : Antiquity to Middle Ages: Recent Past". Michigan State University. Archived from the original on October 11, 2007. RetrievedDecember 28, 2007. # Jump up^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 126–127. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1. # Jump up^ Royall, Tyler, ed. (2003). The Tale of Genji. Penguin Classics. pp. i–ii, xii. ISBN 0-14-243714-X. # Jump up^ Keene, Donald (1999). World Within Walls: Japanese Literature of the Pre-Modern Era, 1600–1867. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11467-7. # Jump up^ "A Day in the Life: Seasonal Foods", The Japan Forum Newsletter No.September 14, 1999. # Jump up^ (in Japanese). Michelin Japan. November 24, 2010. RetrievedFebruary 7, 2011. # Jump up^ "Sumo: East and West". PBS. Retrieved March 10, 2007. # Jump up^ "Culture and Daily Life". Embassy of Japan in the UK. Archived from the original on March 17, 2007. Retrieved March 27, 2007. # Jump up^ "Olympic History in Japan". Japanese Olympic Committee. Retrieved January 7, 2011. # Jump up^ IOC selects Tokyo as host of 2020 Summer Olympic Games # Jump up^ "rugbyworldcup.com". Retrieved November 1, 2013. # Jump up^ Nagata, Yoichi; Holway, John B. (1995). "Japanese Baseball". In Palmer, Pete. Total Baseball (4th ed.). Viking Press. p. 547. # Jump up^ "Soccer as a Popular Sport: Putting Down Roots in Japan" (PDF). The Japan Forum. Retrieved April 1, 2007. # Jump up^ "Previous FIFA World Cups". FIFA. Retrieved January 7, 2011. # Jump up^ "Team Japan". Asian Football Confederation. Retrieved March 2, 2014. # Jump up^ "Japan edge USA for maiden title". FIFA. July 17, 2011. Retrieved July 17, 2011. # Jump up^ Varcoe, Fred. "Japanese Golf Gets Friendly". Metropolis. Archived from the originalon September 26, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007. # Jump up^ Clarke, Len. "Japanese Omnibus: Sports". Metropolis. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007. # Jump up^ "Hoop Dreams – Yuta Tabuse, "The Jordan of Japan"". Consulate General of Japan in New York. December 2004 – January 2005. Archived from the original on December 3, 2010. Retrieved January 19, 2009. Further reading Main article: Bibliography of Japanese history * Flath (2000). The Japanese Economy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-877503-2. * Henshall (2001). A History of Japan. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-23370-1. * Iwabuchi (2002). Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2891-7. * Jansen (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Belknap. ISBN 0-674-00334-9. * Kato et al. (1997). A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times. Japan Library. ISBN 1-873410-48-4. * Pilling, David (2014). Bending Adversity: Japan and the Art of Survival. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1-846-14546-9. * Samuels (2008). Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand Strategy and the Future of East Asia. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-7490-6. * Silverberg (2007). Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22273-3. * Sugimoto et al. (2003). An Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52925-5. * Taggart Murphy, R. (2014). Japan and the Shackles of the Past. Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-84598-9. * Varley (2000). Japanese Culture. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2152-1. External links ; Government * Kantei.go.jp, official site of the Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet * Kunaicho.go.jp, official site of the Imperial House * National Diet Library * Public Relations Office ; Tourism * Japan National Tourist Organization * Japan travel guide from Wikivoyage ; General information * Japan entry at The World Factbook * Japan from UCB Libraries GovPubs * Japan at DMOZ * Japan profile from BBC News * Energy Profile for Japan from the US Energy Information Administration * Japan from the OECD * Key Development Forecasts for the Japan from International Futures |} |} Categories: * Constitutional monarchies * East Asian countries * G20 nations * G8 nations * G7 nations * Island countries * Japan * Liberal democracies * Member states of the United Nations * Northeast Asian countries * States and territories established in the 7th century BC * 660 BC establishments Navigation menu * Railroadguy758 * 0 * Talk * Sandbox * Preferences * Beta * Watchlist * Contributions * Log out * Article * Talk * Read * View source * View history * Watch * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia * Wikipedia store Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact page Tools * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Wikidata item * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * Acèh * Адыгэбзэ * Afrikaans * Alemannisch * አማርኛ * Ænglisc * Аҧсшәа * العربية * Aragonés * ܐܪܡܝܐ * Arpetan * অসমীয়া * Asturianu * Avañe'ẽ * Aymar aru * Azərbaycanca * বাংলা * Bahasa Banjar * Bân-lâm-gú * Башҡортса * Беларуская * Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ * भोजपुरी * Bikol Central * Български * Boarisch * བོད་ཡིག * Bosanski * Brezhoneg * Буряад * Català * Чӑвашла * Cebuano * Čeština * Chamoru * Chavacano de Zamboanga * ChiShona * Cymraeg * Dansk * Deitsch * Deutsch * ދިވެހިބަސް * Diné bizaad * Dolnoserbski * ཇོང་ཁ * Eesti * Ελληνικά * Emiliàn e rumagnòl * Эрзянь * Español * Esperanto * Estremeñu * Euskara * Eʋegbe * فارسی * Fiji Hindi * Føroyskt * Français * Frysk * Furlan * Gaeilge * Gaelg * Gagauz * Gàidhlig * Galego * 贛語 * Gĩkũyũ * ગુજરાતી * 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî * Хальмг * 한국어 * Hausa * Hawai`i * Հայերեն * हिन्दी * Hornjoserbsce * Hrvatski * Ido * Ilokano * বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী * Bahasa Indonesia * Interlingua * Interlingue * ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut * Ирон * IsiXhosa * IsiZulu * Íslenska * Italiano * עברית * Basa Jawa * Kalaallisut * ಕನ್ನಡ * Kapampangan * Къарачай-малкъар * ქართული * Kaszëbsczi * Қазақша * Kernowek * Kinyarwanda * Kiswahili * Коми * Kongo * Kreyòl ayisyen * Kurdî * Кыргызча * Кырык мары * Лезги * ລາວ * لۊری شومالی * Latgaļu * Latina * Latviešu * Lëtzebuergesch * Lietuvių * Ligure * Limburgs * Lingála * Lojban * Lumbaart * Magyar * Македонски * Malagasy * മലയാളം * Malti * Māori * मराठी * მარგალური * مصرى * مازِرونی * Bahasa Melayu * Baso Minangkabau * Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ * Mirandés * Мокшень * Молдовеняскэ * Монгол * မြန်မာဘာသာ * Nāhuatl * Dorerin Naoero * Nederlands * Nedersaksies * नेपाली * नेपाल भाषा * 日本語 * Napulitano * Нохчийн * Nordfriisk * Norfuk / Pitkern * Norsk bokmål * Norsk nynorsk * Nouormand * Novial * Occitan * Олык марий * ଓଡ଼ିଆ * Oromoo * Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча * ਪੰਜਾਬੀ * پنجابی * Papiamentu * پښتو * Перем Коми * ភាសាខ្មែរ * Picard * Piemontèis * Tok Pisin * Plattdüütsch * Polski * Português * Qaraqalpaqsha * Qırımtatarca * Reo tahiti * Română * Rumantsch * Runa Simi * Русиньскый * Русский * Саха тыла * Sámegiella * Gagana Samoa * संस्कृतम् * Sardu * Scots * Seeltersk * Sesotho sa Leboa * Shqip * Sicilianu * සිංහල * Simple English * سنڌي * SiSwati * Slovenčina * Slovenščina * Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ * Ślůnski * Soomaaliga * کوردیی ناوەندی * Sranantongo * Српски / srpski * Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски * Basa Sunda * Suomi * Svenska * Tagalog * தமிழ் * Taqbaylit * Tarandíne * Татарча/tatarça * తెలుగు * Tetun * ไทย * ትግርኛ * Тоҷикӣ * ᏣᎳᎩ * Türkçe * Türkmençe * Twi * Удмурт * ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ * Українська * اردو * ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche * Vahcuengh * Vèneto * Vepsän kel’ * Tiếng Việt * Volapük * Võro * 文言 * West-Vlams * Winaray * Wolof * 吴语 * ייִדיש * Yorùbá * 粵語 * Zazaki * Zeêuws * Žemaitėška * 中文 Edit links * This page was last modified on 8 July 2015, at 17:42. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.